Arches, Gates and Forts in Roman Architecture

Among the most solidly preserved of all Roman architectural inventions are the monumental arches, buildings of a type devised purely for display. This conversion to monumental form of the temporary structures created for the occasion of military triumphs in Rome is yet another instance of rapid evolution in Augustan architecture. The main arch passage, and any side passages, as on Trajan's Arch at Timgad and that of Septimius Severus in Rome, was flanked by columns, usually in pairs. The intervening spaces might contain aediculae or relief sculpture relevant to the arch's commemorative purpose, as on Trajan's Arch at Benevento and the Arch at Orange. That purpose was made explicit by a prominent inscription on the attic storey above the archway. The whole was surmounted by groups of sculpture, usually in bronze.

The arched gate through a city wall might take much the same form, but its function required that it should have guard chambers at the sides, often contained in projecting towers, and a gallery above, to allow passage across the gateway. The window openings in the gallery might be given additional architectural distinction by schemes of engaged pilasters or columns, with pediments, as on the Porta dei Borsari at Verona, or with a continuous entablature, as on the gates of Nimes and Autun.

Hadrian's Arch at Athens, which led from the old city to the new quarter, is unusual in the combination of its decorative elements. The columns and pilasters of its upper storey do not continue the vertical lines of the pilasters which flanked the archway below, which were taken up by the statuary which stood in the openings of the upper storey. Some second-century and later arches and gates were highly elaborate, with a façade architecture of niched figures framed by luxuriantly decorated pilasters, as on the Porte Noir at Besançon and the London Arch. In contrast, the Porta Nigra at Trier, with quadruple tiers of regularly-spaced columns framing arched openings, is reminiscent of the exteriors of theatres and amphitheatres. The Porta Aurea of Diocletian's Palace at Split, with arcaded entablatures above the entrance, owed more to the traditions of the East, as is emphasized by the great arcades and the Syrian pediment of the ceremonial courtyard within.

There is a clear military influence in the Palace's massive four-square walls, external towers, and the T-Junction formed by its colonnaded streets. Colonnades, and the peristyles of officers' houses in military forts, were derived from what was familiar in civilian building. The plan of the headquarters, with its courtyard and basilican hall, evolved in parallel with the north Italian and Gaulish forum which it so much resembles. The decoration of the most important buildings in some legionary fortresses, like Neuss and Lambaesis, gave them some architectural distinction. Hadrian's Wall, by contrast, had the solid unembellished serviceability which characterized much military building.

Property Trends in London in 2010

When we pass by billboards selling products, we always vow we will not give into their advertising but always end up buying that new kitchen cleaner or camera a few days later. This form of advertising also applies to food, clothes and the property market. Like other trends, property trends change continuously and what might have been popular last year could be rather boring currently. As individuals begin to look for property this year, there are some trends that are beginning to stand out from the rest.

The status of the property market is still in high debate as experts all have different points of view as to where the market is heading. If you Google property market, you will see an array of different opinions and views on the industry and the upcoming trends. It seems that even though this market is unpredictable and will continue to be for the next few years, individuals are beginning to buy and sell homes and these numbers should continue to rise.

A feature that is currently being highlighted this year is architecture. Property analysts predict that the trend of architecture in property will come up more and space and design will feature now more than ever. Individuals that reside in the London area know that space is limited when it comes to property and this year, many are trying to make the illusion of more space in their home. The London mayor is soon to introduce the minimum space initiative and this means that new property that has yet to be built will increase and this trend will hopefully encourage bigger living spaces.

Some other property trends that are being brought into the light is the issue of "flexible space" and what this can do for you as a home owner. This "flexible space" will include movable walls within your property, pull out beds, and fold away surfaces as well as other innovative trends that will help create the illusion of that much needed space.

One property trend that many of us have seen developing over the past few years is green living. Some eco aware individuals are changing their homes to be more environmentally friendly as well as building homes that are adapted to be reduce their carbon footprint. Another initiative taken on by the London mayor is to lower carbon emissions by 2016 and people are doing their part to change their commercial property in order to follow this trend. Technological additions to the home continue to increase but these products are not as flashy as before and are now more family orientated in order to help run the home.

It is obvious that potential buyers are not throwing money into the property industry but the upcoming buying trends show that there will be smarter purchases this year as individuals remain tight yet clever with their cash. Buying homes as investments will increase and other property trends such as younger buyers purchasing houses will become evident.

London Eye - The Spinning World

The London Eye is a perfect fusion of extraordinary design, unmatched engineering and outstanding architecture.

It is London's most visited tourist attraction and is a significant landmark in modern day Britain. Also known as the Millennium Wheel, the London Eye started spinning in March 2000 and by today it is visited by more than 3.5 million people on an annual basis. It is the world's largest observation wheel and stands as high as 443 feet or 135 metres. The London Eye has also earned a name as the fourth tallest structure in London.

A passenger seated in a magnificently engineered capsule can get a bird's eye view of nearly 40 kilometres in every direction. The London Eye is the brainchild of the renowned architect couple David Marks and Julia Barfield. Other renowned architects like Steven Chilton, Malcolm Cook, Mark Sparrowhawk and Nic Bailey also chipped in to create this magnificent piece of engineering. It took nearly seven years to complete the daunting task of building The London Eye.

During the initial stages of setting up the extraordinary London Eye, entities like British Airways played a major role in the funding part of it. Currently it is managed by London Eye Company Limited which is a Merlin Entertainments Group Company.

The wheel comes with 32 sealed, air-conditioned passenger capsules and each can accommodate approximately 24 people. Passengers will have the liberty to even walk about the capsule while it is rotating. However, seating facilities are also provided. Each rotation takes approximately 30 minutes and a capsule travels at a stately 26 centimetres per second or 0.9 kilometres per hour.

The London Eye is today a significant landmark set amidst an outstanding city. Since 2005, the Eye has also been involved in London's New Year celebrations. A 10-minute firework display takes place and fireworks are fired from the wheel itself. Travellers can easily visit the London Eye since it's connected to all major transport links and located close to many well appointed Gatwick Airport hotels.

The Museums of London - A Storehouse of History and Culture

Wherever you decide to stay on your visit to London, you will be near a museum. There are 240 museums in London so there is something to suit every taste. There are small museums in the outer suburbs, and big museums in Central London. Some of these museums are the greatest of their kind in the world. London has a unique place in the world because of its historical legacy. This is reflected in some of the magnificent collections and exhibitions.

The museums in London have a tremendous inheritance of wonderful artefacts.This means that many people visiting London want to put the museums in the 'must visit' list.

The British Museum

The British Museum is possibly the most famous London museum and is one of the top visitor attractions in England. The enigmatic Rosetta Stone has been exhibited here since 1802 when it was taken from the defeated French army. There are Aztec artefacts, Chinese ceramics and European sculptors.

Historical Drama

What if historical drama is more your forte? Could Jack the Ripper have known that many thousands of people would follow in his evil footsteps down those now infamous East London alleyways along Jack the Ripper Walk? Now you can take that walk and frighten yourself in the process.

Did Sir Arthur Conan Doyle get a premonition that his fictitious sleuth would come to life at the Sherlock Holmes Museum? Now you can enjoy sitting where Holmes sat in his study at the famous address, 221b Baker Street. Or take a trip back to Dickensian England and visit the house where Charles Dickens lived and wrote Oliver Twist and The Pickwick Papers.

Military Museums

You might be a military man. Then the National Army Museum may be for you. You can follow this with the Royal Air Force Museum in Hendon and The Imperial War Museum.

If you still have enough time, you might like to revisit the Crimean War at the Florence Nightingale Museum or try Firepower: The Royal Artillery Museum.

Sports Museums

If sport is all you think about you will not miss out. Try the Arsenal Football Club Museum, the Wimbledon Lawn Tennis Museum or the MCC Museum at Lords Cricket Ground.

Art Galleries

Then for the art connoisseur, there's the magnificent National Gallery on Trafalgar Square where you can see over 2000 masterpieces. For those with a more eclectic taste, the wonderful Institute of Contemporary Arts awaits you. Then there is the Tate Britain, the home of British art from 1500 to the present day. Then of course the quirky Tate Modern housed in the refurbished former Banks Power Station on the River Thames opposite St Paul's Cathedral.

A Floating Museum

Now that we are on the subject of the River Thames, how about visiting the floating museum that comes in the guise of HMS Belfast? This magnificent cruiser is a branch of the Imperial War Museum and is moored between London Bridge and Tower Bridge.

South Kensington Museums

We have not even mentioned the jewels in the crown. No, we are not talking here about the Tower of London (which is another unique museum), but the gems in South Kensington. The splendid Victoria and Albert Museum, is in Cromwell Road, where you could spend all day just admiring its magnificent architecture. Then the Natural History Museum next door, which houses the world-famous collection of dinosaur skeletons, among many thousands of other exhibits from the natural world.

These are places for visitors to collect enduring memories as well as places of research and development. And do not forgot the short walk along Exhibition Road to the Science Museum. You could spend all day in here visiting the Imax cinema and discovering what it felt like to be a lunar astronaut or check out Stephenson's Rocket or a Model T Ford.

Plan your stay

You can already see that you should not visit London without a plan. Do your homework well. Check the Internet and the guide books to plan your itinerary. That way you will not leave disappointed. Do not try and do everything in a short stay. Choose your targets well and save the rest for the next time you visit. Select a hotel that suits your plan and your pocket. You may be fortunate enough to stay in one of the hotels that are a modern day working museum giving you a glimpse into Victorian London through its Gothic or Renaissance Revival Architecture.

You need to have stamina for your time in London. After a hard day's walking around the museums there is just enough time to rest briefly, enjoy your dinner and get ready for the London theatre. But that, is another story.

10 Things You Absolutely Must See Or Do in London

If you're an infrequent visitor to London and plan to hit the tourist trail then the last thing you'll want is to be pointed in the direction of the underwhelming, the uninspiring or the instantly forgettable. There's enough of that where you live, which is why you're visiting London!

Our guide features London's best galleries, museums, landmarks, historical sites, shopping areas and entertainment zones, all guaranteed to provide the ultimate London tourist experience. The attractions we've highlighted are unashamedly well known, but do you really want to be returning home to tell your friends about the fantastic thimble shop in Pimlico you visited? Or would you rather rave about the phenomenal view of one of the world's great cities from the top of The Eye, or that you've actually seen the beauty of Van Gogh's Sunflowers with your own eyes?

London has a multitude of varied and exciting attractions but these are the ones without which, your trip just wouldn't be the same!

Oxford Street
Britain's busiest high street and London's best known shopping area is chock-a-block full of the largest branches of the nation's most popular shops - over 300 in fact. Many of the biggest high street names have their flagship stores here and the street also boasts the oldest record shop in the world (HMV at number 363). It's not all hardcore shopping though - light entertainment is often provided in the form of chanting Hari Krishnas skipping along the pavement. If you can't find what you want to buy in Oxford Street, you haven't got much of a hope elsewhere.

Nearest Tubes: Marble Arch, Bond Street, Oxford Circus, and Tottenham Court Road

Camden Market
If you're after a more bohemian approach to shopping than the Oxford Street experience, then get yourself up to Camden. One of London's coolest areas has a seemingly endless array of shops and stalls selling such items as clothing (new, second hand and retro), customised Doc Martins and trainers, jewellery, bootleg CDs and DVDs and craft ware. Open daily; it's a multi cultural experience with some great little food outlets dotted all over.

Nearest Tube: Camden Town

Tower of London
Built by Billy The Conqueror nearly a thousand years ago, this is one of the best preserved and most famous historic landmarks in the world. Full of the history of executions and imprisonments and offering the spectacle of the Beefeaters, the ravens and the crown jewels as well as the majesty of the building itself, this remains THE essential place of historic interest to visit when in London.


Nearest Tube: Tower Hill.

St. Paul's Cathedral
Britain's best known place of worship and certainly one of its most recognisable buildings, having so often been the centrepiece of state occasions. The cathedral was designed by Sir Christopher Wren and built 300 years ago following the destruction of the previous building by the Great Fire Of London. An awe inspiring feat of architecture, steeped in history and featuring works of art, monuments, mosaics and the Whispering Gallery, the Cathedral is also still a busy working church. So booking your wedding here during the summer months might just be a bit tricky.

Nearest Tube: St Pauls

National Gallery
The National Gallery is home to one of the greatest collections of European art in the world. Featuring works painted between 1250 and 1900, the collection includes such well known pieces as Van Gogh's Sunflowers, Botticelli's Venus And Mars and Constable's Hay Wain. Sadly, the work of the great Rolf Harris is too recent and too Australian to be included - see the Tate Modern.

Nearest Tube: Charing Cross.

British Museum
Founded over 250 years ago, it could be said that the British Museum is one of London's oldest and most prized exhibits - the museum building itself is one of Britain's greatest architectural landmarks. Housed inside is a collection of art and antiquities from ancient and living cultures the world over spanning two million years featuring the Rosetta Stone, the Easter Island statue and the earliest known image of Christ.

Nearest Tubes: Tottenham Court Road, Goodge Street, Russell Square & Holborn.

London Eye
Undoubtedly the quickest way to take in all of London's major attractions is by jumping on the Eye. There's not much of the city that can't be seen from the top of what has become one of the London skyline's most dominating features. To further enhance your flight on this modern day feat of engineering, you can even order champagne to be served in your capsule (not recommended for the easily nauseas).


Nearest Tubes: Waterloo & Westminster.

Tate Modern
If random blobs of paint on canvas and piles of rusty old engine parts is your idea of art, then get yourself down to the Tate Modern. Created in a disused power station on the banks of the Thames, the gallery has become one of London's most fascinating attractions since opening in 2000. The collection features works by Picasso, Matisse, Dali, Pollock and Warhol and represents all the major movements since 1900. Sadly, the work of the great Rolf Harris is too art like to be included - see the National Gallery.

Nearest Tubes: Southwark & Blackfriars.


Covent Garden
Formerly a fruit and vegetable market, 'The Garden' is now a constant and varied hive of activity. It has a hugely diverse selection of shops, eateries, bars, a market selling art, crafts, antiques and souvenirs, historic buildings, theatres, the Royal Opera House and fantastic free entertainment provided by street entertainers and musicians. If you can't find something to capture your interest at Covent Garden then you must be harder to please than Simon Cowell on a bad day.

Nearest Tube: Covent Garden.

Trafalgar Square
Undoubtedly one of the most famous sights of London without visiting which, a trip to the capital would be incomplete. Not only are tourists drawn to see Nelsons Column, the fountains, the lions, the annual gift of a huge Christmas tree from Norway and the pigeons (dirty little so and sos), but it is where the masses flock to in times of national celebration or when there is cause to demonstrate. Trafalgar Square truly is the meeting place of the nation.

Nearest Tube: Charing Cross.